DEFENCE

1. The Rashtriya Rifles (RR) is a specialized counter-insurgency force of the Indian Army. 2. It was established in 1990 to combat insurgency and terrorism in Jammu and Kashmir. 3. The primary objective of the Rashtriya Rifles is to maintain peace and stability in the region and assist the civil administration in restoring normalcy. 4. The RR operates under the operational control of the Indian Army and works in close coordination with other security forces, such as the Central Reserve Police Force (CRPF) and Jammu and Kashmir Police. 5. The force is composed of personnel from various regiments of the Indian Army, including officers and soldiers who volunteer for service in the RR. 6. Rashtriya Rifles units are stationed in different parts of Jammu and Kashmir, with a focus on areas affected by militancy and insurgency. 7. The RR conducts a wide range of operations, including counter-insurgency operations, intelligence gathering, area domination, and humanitarian assistance. 8. The force is trained in specialized counter-insurgency tactics, including guerrilla warfare, jungle warfare, and urban combat. 9. Rashtriya Rifles units work closely with the local population to gain their trust and support, thereby weakening the influence of insurgents. 10. The RR has been successful in neutralizing several prominent militants and terrorist organizations operating in Jammu and Kashmir. 11. The force is also involved in various civic action programs, such as organizing medical camps, vocational training, and educational initiatives for the local population. 12. The Rashtriya Rifles has played a significant role in restoring peace and stability in Jammu and Kashmir and continues to be actively involved in counter-insurgency operations in the region.

The Indian Army recently made history by empowering female officers in leadership posts. This move opened up many opportunities for female officers in various branches of the military, including the Corps of Engineers, Orderlies, and Electrical and Mechanical Engineers (EME). One such officer, Colonel Geeta Rana of the Mechanical and Electronic Engineers Corps, became the first female officer to take command of an independent field workshop in a remote location in eastern Ladakh, which is currently facing tensions with China . This appointment is a significant step towards gender equality and empowerment in the Indian Armed Forces. The Army has released 108 vacancies for female officers in command of independent units, and many female officers have already been filled. More lists are expected to be announced as dashboards are compiled and results are released. Female officers who clear recommendations will be given leadership roles and may also be considered for future promotions to higher ranks in the military. This move is a testament to the Indian Army’s commitment to gender equality and equal opportunities for female officers in the force. In addition to this, the Army has also begun deploying female soldiers in joint exercises with friendly foreign countries and in peacekeeping missions. This move is a clear indication of the Army’s recognition of women’s role in the defense industry and their ability to serve in various capacities. Overall, the Indian Army’s recent move to empower female officers in leadership posts is a significant step towards gender equality and empowerment in the defense sector. It is a testament to the Army’s commitment to providing equal opportunity for female officers and recognizing their valuable contributions to the force.

The PARA Commandos, also known as the Parachute Regiment, are an elite special forces unit of the Indian Army. Renowned for their bravery, physical prowess, and specialized training, PARA Commandos are often called upon for high-risk operations. In this article, we will delve into 20 lesser-known facts about the PARA Commandos, shedding light on their history, training, and remarkable capabilities. Elite Special Forces: The PARA Commandos are one of India’s most elite special forces units, comparable to the British SAS and the United States Navy SEALs. Rich Heritage: The Parachute Regiment was formed in 1941 during World War II and has a long and distinguished history, with several battle honours to its name. Airborne Assault Experts: The PARA Commandos specialize in airborne assault operations, including parachute jumps from aircraft and helicopter-borne assaults. Selection Process: The selection process to become a PARA Commando is incredibly rigorous, with a high attrition rate. Candidates undergo grueling physical and mental tests to prove their mettle. Combat Divers: PARA Commandos are trained as combat divers, enabling them to operate in various aquatic environments and conduct special underwater missions. Sniper Training: Sniper training is an integral part of the PARA Commandos’ training curriculum. They undergo specialized sniper courses to develop exceptional marksmanship skills. Mountain Warfare Experts: The PARA Commandos are extensively trained in mountain warfare, which equips them to operate in high-altitude terrains, including the challenging Himalayan region. Jungle Warfare Specialists: The dense jungles of India present unique challenges, and the PARA Commandos are trained to navigate through them expertly. They acquire skills in survival, tracking, and guerrilla warfare. Counter-Terrorism Operations: PARA Commandos are frequently deployed in counter-terrorism operations, rescuing hostages, and neutralizing threats in urban environments. Close Quarter Battle (CQB): The PARA Commandos are proficient in CQB, which involves engaging adversaries in confined spaces with precision and speed. Surgical Strikes: The PARA Commandos are adept at carrying out surgical strikes, quick and precise military operations against specific targets, often deep within enemy territory. UN Peacekeeping Missions: PARA Commandos have been part of various United Nations peacekeeping missions, contributing to global peace and stability. Specialized Weapons and Equipment: PARA Commandos have access to a wide range of state-of-the-art weaponry, including assault rifles, sniper rifles, explosives, and cutting-edge communication equipment. High Physical Fitness Standards: PARA Commandos maintain exceptionally high physical fitness standards. Regular physical training and fitness tests ensure they are always at their peak performance. Operational Secrecy: PARA Commandos operate under a veil of secrecy. Their identities and missions are often classified to protect national security. Women in PARA: In recent years, women have been inducted into the PARA Commandos, breaking gender barriers and contributing to the unit’s diverse capabilities. Combat Free Fall: The PARA Commandos are trained in combat free fall techniques, allowing them to perform high-altitude jumps with specialized equipment, such as oxygen masks and navigation aids. Extensive Cross Training: PARA Commandos undergo cross-training with other special forces units, both domestically and internationally, to enhance their skills and exchange knowledge. Multiple Awards and Decorations: The PARA Commandos have received numerous awards for their gallantry and exceptional service, including the prestigious Param Vir Chakra and Ashok Chakra. Sacrifice and Honor: The PARA Commandos epitomize the values of sacrifice, dedication, and honor. They serve as an inspiration to the nation and a symbol of unwavering bravery. Conclusion: The PARA Commandos are an exceptional special forces unit, revered for their unmatched bravery and remarkable skills. Through their rigorous training, versatility in various terrains, and specialization in airborne operations, they have become an integral part of India’s military might. These 20 lesser-known facts provide a glimpse into the incredible world of the PARA Commandos and their vital role in safeguarding national security.

1. The Gorkha Regiment is one of the most renowned and respected infantry regiments of the Indian Army. It was formed in 1815 and has a glorious history spanning over two centuries. 2. The regiment traces its origins to the Gorkhas, a martial tribe from Nepal known for their fierce loyalty, bravery, and military skills. The Gorkhas have been serving in the Indian Army since the Anglo-Nepalese War in the early 19th century. 3. The Gorkha Regiment has a total of seven battalions, each known for their distinctive traditions and battle honors. These battalions include the 1st, 3rd, 4th, 5th, 8th, 9th, and 11th Gorkha Rifles. 4. Gorkha soldiers are recruited mainly from Nepal and the Indian states of Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, Darjeeling, and Sikkim. They undergo rigorous training to become skilled soldiers capable of operating in varied terrains and challenging conditions. 5. The regiment has participated in numerous military campaigns and wars, both during the British Raj and after India’s independence. They have fought valiantly in major conflicts like World Wars I and II, the Indo-Pakistani wars, and counter-insurgency operations. 6. Gorkha soldiers are known for their distinctive uniform, which includes the traditional khukuri knife carried in a scabbard on their belts. The khukuri is a symbol of their bravery and is deeply ingrained in their culture. 7. The Gorkha Regiment has earned a reputation for its exceptional bravery and outstanding military achievements. Gorkha soldiers have been awarded numerous gallantry awards, including the prestigious Victoria Cross, Param Vir Chakra, and Maha Vir Chakra. 8. Gorkha soldiers are highly skilled in mountain warfare and have a remarkable track record in high-altitude operations. Their expertise in mountain warfare has been instrumental in securing India’s borders in the Himalayan region. 9. The Gorkha Regiment has also contributed significantly to United Nations peacekeeping missions. Gorkha soldiers have served in UN missions around the world, showcasing their professionalism and dedication to global peace and security. 10. The regiment has its own training center called the Gorkha Training Center (GTC) located in Shillong, Meghalaya. The GTC provides specialized training to Gorkha soldiers, focusing on combat skills, physical fitness, and leadership development. 11. Gorkha soldiers are known for their strong sense of camaraderie and loyalty. The regiment emphasizes the values of brotherhood, discipline, and honor, which are instilled in its soldiers from the beginning of their training. 12. The Gorkha Regiment has a rich cultural heritage and celebrates various festivals and traditions. Dashain and Tihar are two prominent festivals celebrated by Gorkha soldiers, highlighting their cultural roots and fostering a sense of unity among the troops. 13. The Gorkha Regiment maintains a close bond with Nepal, and soldiers from Nepal serve alongside their Indian counterparts. This cross-border camaraderie strengthens the ties between the two nations and reflects the historical and cultural affinity shared by both. 14. The Gorkha Regiment has a mascot named “Baba,” a black Himalayan bear. Baba serves as a symbol of strength, courage, and resilience and is an integral part of the regiment’s identity. 15. The Gorkha Regiment has produced several distinguished military leaders who have excelled in their careers and made significant contributions to the Indian Army. Many retired Gorkha officers continue to serve society in various capacities. 16. The Gorkha Regiment continues to play a vital role in India’s defense and security. Its soldiers stand as a testament to the indomitable spirit and valor of the Gorkha warriors, upholding their legacy and making the regiment a source of pride for the nation. These are just a few of the fascinating facts about the Gorkha Regiment, a legendary force that has left an indelible mark in the annals of military history.

Certainly! Here are some notable Indian military quotes that every defense aspirant may find inspiring and motivating: 1. “Soldiers win battles; nations win wars.” – Field Marshal Sam Manekshaw 2. “I regret I have but one life to give for my country.” – Major Shaitan Singh (posthumously awarded the Param Vir Chakra) 3. “Either I will come back after hoisting the tricolor, or I will come back wrapped in it, but I will be back for sure.” – Captain Vikram Batra (posthumously awarded the Param Vir Chakra) 4. “No Sir, I will not abandon my tank. My gun is still working and I will get these bastards.” – Lieutenant Arun Khetarpal (posthumously awarded the Param Vir Chakra) 5. “The safety, honour, and welfare of your country come first, always and every time. The honour, welfare, and comfort of the men you command come next. Your own ease, comfort, and safety come last, always and every time.” – Field Marshal Philip Chetwode 6. “Some goals are so worthy, it’s glorious even to fail.” – Wing Commander Abhinandan Varthaman (while in captivity) 7. “A soldier’s thoughts, his feelings, and his duty are all that he is.” – General K. Sundarji 8. “The more you sweat in peace, the less you bleed in war.” – General Norman Schwarzkopf Jr. 9. “There will be no withdrawal without written orders and these orders shall never be issued.” – General A. A. K. Niazi (during the 1971 Indo-Pak War) 10. “The enemy are only 50 yards from us. We are heavily outnumbered. We are under devastating fire. I shall not withdraw an inch, but will fight to our last man and our last round.” – Major Somnath Sharma (posthumously awarded the Param Vir Chakra) Remember, these quotes are meant to inspire and instill a sense of dedication, courage, and patriotism. They reflect the valor and spirit of the Indian military personnel who have dedicated their lives to serving the nation.

The Technical Graduate Course (TGC) of the Indian Army provides a unique opportunity for engineering graduates to embark on a fulfilling and challenging career in the armed forces. TGC is a specialized entry scheme that offers a direct commission as an officer, allowing young professionals to serve their nation while utilizing their technical expertise. This article explores the journey of entering the Indian Army through TGC, highlighting its requirements, selection process, and the rewards that come with this esteemed path. 1. Eligibility and Requirements: To be eligible for the Technical Graduate Course, candidates must meet the following criteria: – Nationality: Indian – Age: Between 20 and 27 years (age relaxation for certain categories) – Education: A degree in engineering or appearing in the final year of engineering course from a recognized university – Branches: Eligible engineering disciplines include Civil, Mechanical, Electrical/Electrical & Electronics, Computer Science & Engineering/Computer Technology/Info Tech/M.Sc. (Computer Science), Electronics & Telecommunication/Telecommunication/Electronics & Communication/Electronics & Instrumentation, Architecture, and other relevant fields. 2. Selection Process: The selection process for TGC comprises several stages designed to assess candidates’ suitability for a career in the Indian Army. These stages include: – Initial Screening: Candidates’ applications are screened based on eligibility criteria, and shortlisted individuals are called for further selection. – SSB Interview: Shortlisted candidates undergo a rigorous five-day selection process at one of the Selection Centers. This includes psychological tests, group tasks, personal interviews, and physical fitness tests. – Medical Examination: Candidates who qualify in the SSB interview undergo a medical examination to ensure they meet the required medical standards. – Merit List: A merit list is prepared based on the candidates’ performance in the SSB interview, medical examination, and overall suitability. The final selection is based on vacancies and candidates’ position in the merit list. 3. Training and Commissioning: Upon selection, candidates are admitted to the Indian Military Academy (IMA) at Dehradun for a one-year training course. The training focuses on developing leadership skills, physical fitness, and tactical knowledge. The TGC course provides a blend of military training, academics, and practical exposure to the challenges faced by the Indian Army. After successful completion of the course, candidates are commissioned as Lieutenants in the respective arms or services of the Indian Army. 4. Career Opportunities and Growth: Joining the Indian Army through TGC opens up numerous career opportunities for technical officers. Officers can specialize in various branches such as Engineering, Signals, Armament, Aeronautical, Electronics & Mechanical Engineering, and more. As officers gain experience and expertise, they can progress through higher ranks, leading troops, and taking up key command appointments. The Indian Army provides ample opportunities for professional growth, advanced training programs, and postgraduate studies, enabling officers to stay at the forefront of technological advancements. 5. Rewards and Job Satisfaction: Serving in the Indian Army through TGC brings a sense of pride, honor, and job satisfaction. As officers, individuals have the privilege of leading and guiding dedicated soldiers, making a significant impact on the nation’s security. They are exposed to challenging environments, both in combat and peacetime operations, developing qualities of resilience, decision-making, and teamwork. Moreover, the Indian Army offers excellent pay scales, allowances, medical facilities, accommodation, and other benefits to its officers, ensuring a well-rounded and secure lifestyle. Conclusion: The Technical Graduate Course (TGC) provides a remarkable opportunity for engineering graduates to join the Indian Army as officers, combining technical expertise with military leadership. Through a rigorous selection process and comprehensive training, candidates are groomed to serve the nation with honor, valor, and dedication. Joining the Indian Army through TGC offers a rewarding and fulfilling career that allows individuals to make a significant contribution to the nation’s security while embracing the values of discipline, courage, and selfless service.

The Indian Armed Forces offer multiple avenues for individuals to pursue a fulfilling career in defense. Two prominent entry points are the National Defence Academy (NDA) and the Indian Naval Academy (INA). While both institutions aim to train and commission officers, they differ in various aspects. In this article, we will delve into the dissimilarities between the NDA and INA, including their selection process, training curriculum, specialized focus, and career opportunities. By understanding these distinctions, aspiring candidates can make informed decisions regarding their career path within the Indian Armed Forces. I. Overview of NDA The National Defence Academy, located in Khadakwasla, Pune, serves as a premier tri-service training institution. It aims to train candidates for the Indian Army, Navy, and Air Force. Here are key points differentiating the NDA: 1. Selection Process: Candidates are selected through a competitive examination conducted by the Union Public Service Commission (UPSC). This exam consists of a written test, followed by a Services Selection Board (SSB) interview, where candidates are evaluated for their mental and physical suitability. 2. Training Curriculum: NDA offers a three-year training program, focusing on academic education, physical fitness, and military training. The curriculum covers a wide range of subjects, including mathematics, sciences, humanities, and military sciences. The training aims to develop leadership qualities, discipline, physical endurance, and decision-making abilities. 3. Specialized Focus: NDA provides a comprehensive training program covering all aspects of warfare, including land, sea, and air operations. Cadets receive exposure to various facets of military training, enabling them to choose their specific service branch upon successful completion. 4. Career Opportunities: After completing their training at NDA, cadets join the Indian Military Academy (IMA), Naval Academy, or Air Force Academy for further specialized training specific to their chosen branch. Upon successful completion, they are commissioned as officers in the respective services. II. Overview of INA (300 words): The Indian Naval Academy, situated in Ezhimala, Kerala, is the premier training institution for officers in the Indian Navy. Here are key points differentiating the INA: 1. Selection Process: Candidates interested in joining the Indian Navy undergo the same competitive examination conducted by the UPSC. However, they need to select the Indian Naval Academy as their preference during the application process. 2. Training Curriculum: INA provides a comprehensive four-year training program that focuses on maritime education, naval warfare tactics, and physical fitness. Cadets receive specialized education in nautical sciences, seamanship, navigation, and naval operations. 3. Specialized Focus: The INA primarily focuses on training candidates specifically for the Indian Navy. Cadets receive extensive instruction in naval warfare, ship handling, maritime law, navigation, and naval engineering. The training instills leadership qualities and fosters a deep understanding of naval operations. 4. Career Opportunities: Upon successful completion of training at INA, candidates are commissioned as officers in the Indian Navy. They can serve in various capacities, including surface warfare, submarine operations, aviation, logistics, and hydrography. III. Key Differences and Similarities (400 words): 1. Focus Area: The primary difference between NDA and INA lies in their focus areas. NDA provides training for all branches of the Indian Armed Forces, while INA is specifically focused on preparing officers for the Indian Navy. 2. Training Duration: NDA offers a three-year training program, followed by specialized training at service academies, while INA provides a four-year training program exclusively tailored for the Indian Navy. 3. Course Structure: While both institutions emphasize academics, physical fitness, and leadership development, their course structures differ. NDA covers a broader range of subjects to provide a comprehensive understanding of land, sea, and air operations. In contrast, INA’s curriculum is more focused on maritime education, naval warfare tactics, and naval sciences. 4. Location: NDA is situated in Khadakwasla, Pune, while INA is located in Ezhimala, Kerala. The difference in geographical locations provides diverse training environments, with NDA benefiting from its proximity to a varied terrain and INA having access to coastal and maritime resources. 5. Career Paths: NDA offers candidates the opportunity to join the Army, Navy, or Air Force, whereas INA focuses solely on commissioning officers into the Indian Navy. The National Defence Academy (NDA) and the Indian Naval Academy (INA) are prestigious training institutions that provide aspiring individuals with distinct pathways to join the Indian Armed Forces. The NDA offers a broader training program encompassing all branches of the Armed Forces, while the INA specializes in preparing officers exclusively for the Indian Navy. Understanding the differences in their selection process, training curricula, specialized focus, and career opportunities is crucial for candidates aspiring to pursue a career in the defense sector. By making an informed choice, aspiring officers can embark on a fulfilling journey towards serving their country in the Indian Armed Forces.

The Indian Air Force (IAF) boasts a formidable fleet of aircraft, each playing a vital role in safeguarding the nation’s airspace and projecting its military strength. From cutting-edge fighter jets to versatile transport aircraft, the IAF’s inventory showcases a blend of indigenous capabilities and strategic acquisitions. In this article, we present the top five aircraft in the Indian Air Force, highlighting their capabilities, contributions, and significance in maintaining air superiority. Sukhoi Su-30MKI: The Sukhoi Su-30MKI, a multirole air superiority fighter, forms the backbone of the IAF’s combat fleet. This indigenously modified variant of the Russian Su-30 is equipped with advanced avionics, radars, and long-range missiles. With its impressive range, speed, and maneuverability, the Su-30MKI enhances the IAF’s air dominance and strike capabilities. It can carry a wide range of weapons, including air-to-air, air-to-ground, and anti-ship missiles, making it a versatile platform for both defensive and offensive operations.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    Dassault Rafale: The Dassault Rafale, a French-origin twin-engine fighter aircraft, has significantly bolstered the IAF’s combat capabilities. Known for its advanced technology and superior performance, the Rafale is equipped with state-of-the-art avionics, sensors, and weapon systems. It excels in air superiority, ground attack, reconnaissance, and electronic warfare missions. The Rafale’s unparalleled combat potential and integration with Indian systems have enhanced the IAF’s operational flexibility and strategic reach.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                MiG-29: The MiG-29, a Russian-origin air superiority fighter, has been a crucial asset for the IAF for several decades. Agile, maneuverable, and armed with air-to-air and air-to-surface missiles, the MiG-29 is designed to excel in dogfights and provides a robust defense against enemy aircraft. Its advanced radar systems and beyond-visual-range capabilities ensure effective air defense and strike capabilities. Upgrades to the MiG-29 fleet have enhanced its avionics, weapons, and overall combat readiness, making it a formidable presence in the IAF’s inventory.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   C-17 Globemaster III: The C-17 Globemaster III, a strategic airlifter, is a vital asset in the IAF’s transport fleet. This American-origin aircraft is capable of carrying heavy payloads, troops, and equipment over long distances. The C-17’s exceptional short takeoff and landing capabilities allow it to operate from a wide range of airfields, including those with limited infrastructure. With its ability to transport personnel, cargo, and even perform humanitarian missions, the C-17 Globemaster III strengthens the IAF’s strategic airlift capabilities and supports its rapid deployment needs.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             The HAL Tejas, India’s indigenous light combat aircraft, is a testament to the country’s aerospace prowess. Designed to be a modern, agile, and cost-effective fighter, the Tejas is equipped with advanced avionics, composite materials, and a state-of-the-art glass cockpit. With its superb maneuverability, air-to-air, and air-to-ground capabilities, the Tejas strengthens the IAF’s fleet with a domestically developed platform. The ongoing enhancements and variants of the Tejas, including the Tejas Mk1A and Tejas Mk2, demonstrate India’s commitment to self-reliance in defense production. Conclusion: The Indian Air Force’s top five aircraft represent a blend of international collaborations, indigenous advancements, and cutting-edge technology. These platforms, including the Sukhoi Su-30MKI, Dassault Raf

1. What is the value of 3x + 2y – 5z if x = 2, y = 4, and z = -1? a) 23 b) 21 c) 15 d) 13 Answer: a) 23 2. The sum of two consecutive odd numbers is 56. What is the smaller number? a) 27 b) 28 c) 29 d) 30 Answer: c) 29 3. What is the square root of 169? a) 12 b) 13 c) 14 d) 15 Answer: b) 13 4. The ratio of the sides of two similar triangles is 3:5. If the area of the smaller triangle is 16 cm², what is the area of the larger triangle? a) 20 cm² b) 25 cm² c) 32 cm² d) 40 cm² Answer: c) 32 cm² 5. If 4x – 7 = 17, what is the value of x? a) 6 b) 8 c) 9 d) 10 Answer: c) 9 6. The product of two numbers is 72. If one number is 9, what is the other number? a) 6 b) 7 c) 8 d) 10 Answer: c) 8 7. A car traveled a distance of 240 km in 4 hours. What was its average speed? a) 40 km/h b) 50 km/h c) 60 km/h d) 70 km/h Answer: c) 60 km/h 8. If sin θ = 0.6, what is the value of cos θ? a) 0.4 b) 0.6 c) 0.8 d) 1.0 Answer: a) 0.4 9. What is the value of 4! (4 factorial)? a) 6 b) 12 c) 24 d) 48 Answer: c) 24 10. Solve the equation: 2x + 5 = 17. a) 6 b) 8 c) 9 d) 10 Answer: a) 6 11. The area of a rectangle is 48 square units. If the length is 8 units, what is the width? a) 4 units b) 6 units c) 8 units d) 12 units Answer: b) 6 units 12. If log₃(x) = 2, what is the value of x? a) 1 b) 2 c) 3 d) 9 Answer: d) 9 13. What is the value of 5² + 3³ – 2⁴? a) 32 b) 42 c) 52 d) 62 Answer: b) 42 14. The sum of three consecutive integers is 42. What is the largest integer? a) 13 b) 14 c) 15 d) 16 Answer: c) 15 15. The ratio of boys to girls in a class is 3:5. If there are 24 boys, how many girls are there? a) 20 b) 30 c) 40 d) 48 Answer: c) 40 16. Solve the equation: 2x² – 8x + 6 = 0. a) x = -1, x = 3 b) x = 1, x = 3 c) x = -1, x = -3 d) x = 1, x = -3 Answer: a) x = -1, x = 3 17. What is the value of tan 45°? a) 0 b) 1 c) √2/2 d) √3/2 Answer: c) √2/2 18. If a = 3 and b = 4, what is the value of a² + b²? a) 5 b) 7 c) 9 d) 25 Answer: d) 25 19. Simplify: (2/3) ÷ (4/5). a) 5/6 b) 4/15 c) 15/4 d) 6/5 Answer: d) 6/5 20. What is the value of 2⁵ × 2³ ÷ 2⁴? a) 2 b) 4 c) 8 d) 16 Answer: b) 4